Clay Tokens Neolithic Seeds of Mesopotamian Writing

Writing in Mesopotamia—if you define writing as recording information in a symbolic manner—took an important step forward with the domestication of plants and animals and the development of trade networks during the Neolithic period of at least as long ago as 7500 BCE. Beginning then, people recorded information about their agricultural goods—including domestic animals and plants—in the form of small clay tokens. Scholars believe that  the written form of language that is used to pass this information along today evolved out of this simple accounting technique. Mesopotamian clay tokens were not the first accounting method developed by humans. By 20,000 years ago, Upper Paleolithic people were leaving tally marks on cave walls and cutting hash marks onto portable sticks. Clay tokens, however, contained additional information including what commodity was being counted, an important step forward in communication storage and retrieval. Neolithic Clay Tokens Neolithic clay tokens were made very simply. A small piece of clay was worked into one of about a dozen different shapes, and then perhaps incised with lines or dots or embellished with pellets of clay. These were then sun-dried or baked in a hearth. The tokens ranged in size from 1–3 centimeters (about 1/3 to one inch), and about 8,000 of them dated between 7500–3000 BCE have been found so far. The earliest shapes were simple cones, spheres, cylinders, ovoids, disks, and tetrahedrons (pyramids). The premier researcher of clay tokens Denise Schmandt-Besserat argues that these shapes are representations of cups, baskets, and granaries. The cones, spheres and flat disks, she said, represented small, medium and large measures of grain; ovoids were jars of oil; cylinders a sheep or goat; pyramids a person-day of work. She based her interpretations on similarities of the forms to shapes used in the later Mesopotamian written  proto-cuneiform language and, while that theory has yet to be confirmed, she may very well be right. What Were Tokens For? Scholars believe that clay tokens were used to express numerical quantities of goods. They occur in two sizes (larger and smaller), a difference that may have been used as a means of counting and manipulating quantities. The Mesopotamians, who had a base 60 numbering system, also bundled their numerical notations, so that a group of three, six, or ten signs equated to one sign of a different size or shape. Possible uses for the tokens are associated with accounting and include trade negotiations between parties, tax collection or assessments by state agencies, inventories, and allotments or disbursements as payment for services rendered. Tokens were not tied to a particular language. No matter what language you spoke, if both parties understood that a cone meant a measure of grain, the transaction could take place. Whatever they were used for, the same dozen or so token shapes were used for some 4,000 years throughout the Near East. The Sumerian Take Off: Uruk Period Mesopotamia During the Uruk period in Mesopotamia [4000–3000 BC], urban cities blossomed and administrative needs for accounting expanded. Production of what Andrew Sherratt and VG Childe called secondary products—wool, clothing, metals, honey, bread, oil, beer, textiles, garments, rope, mats, carpets, furniture, jewelry, tools, perfume—all of these things and many more needed to be accounted for, and the number of types of tokens in use ballooned to 250 by 3300 BCE. In addition, during the Late Uruk period [3500–3100 BCE], tokens began to be kept in sealed globular clay envelopes called bullae. Bullae  are hollow clay balls about 5–9 cm (2–4 in) in diameter: the tokens were placed inside the envelope and the opening pinched shut. The exterior of the ball was stamped, sometimes all over the surface, and then the bullae  were fired. About 150 of these clay envelopes have been recovered from Mesopotamian sites. Scholars believe that the envelopes were meant for security purposes, that the information was kept inside, protected from being changed at some point along the way. Eventually, people would impress the token forms into the clay on the outside, to mark what was inside. Apparently, by about 3100 BCE, bulla e  were replaced by puffy tablets covered with the impressions of the tokens and there, says Schmandt-Besserat, you have the beginning of real writing, a three-dimensional object represented in two dimensions: proto-cuneiform. Persistence of Clay Token Use Although Schmandt-Besserat argued that with the dawn of written forms of communication, tokens stopped being used, MacGinnis et al. have noted that, although they did decrease, tokens continued in use well into the first millennium BC. Ziyaret Tepe is a tell in southeastern Turkey, first occupied during the Uruk period; the Late Assyrian period levels are dated between 882–611 BCE. A total of 462 baked clay tokens have been recovered from those levels to date, in eight basic shapes: spheres, triangles, disks, pyramids, cylinders, cones, oxhides (squares with indented sides in the shape of a tanned animal hide), and squares. Ziyaret Tepe is only one of several later Mesopotamian sites where tokens were used, although tokens do seem to drop completely out of use before the Neo-Babylonian period about 625 BCE. Why did the use of tokens persist some 2,200 years after the invention of writing? MacGinnis and colleagues suggest that it was a simplified, para-literate system of recording that allowed more flexibility than the use of tablets alone. History of the Research Near Eastern Neolithic clay tokens were recognized and studied first in the 1960s by Pierre Amiet and Maurice Lambert; but the major investigator of clay tokens is Denise Schmandt-Besserat, who in the 1970s began studying the curated corpus of tokens dated between the 8th and 4th millennium BCE. Sources Algaze, Guillermo. The End of Prehistory and the Uruk Period. The Sumerian World. Ed. Crawford, Harriet. London: Routledge, 2013. 68–94. Print.Emberling, Geoff, and Leah Minc. Ceramics and Long-Distance Trade in Early Mesopotamian States. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 7 (2016): 819–34. Print.MacGinnis, John, et al. Artefacts of Cognition: The Use of Clay Tokens in a Neo-Assyrian Provincial Administration. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 24.02 (2014): 289–306. Print.Overmann, Karenleigh A. The Role of Materiality in Numerical Cognition. Quaternary International 405 (2016): 42–51. Print.Roberts, Patrick. ‘We Have Never Been Behaviourally Modern’: The Implications of Material Engagement Theory and Metaplasticity for Understanding the Late Pleistocene Record of Human Behaviour. Quaternary International 405 (2016): 8–20. Print.Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. Decipherment of the Earliest Tablets. Science 211 (1983): 283–85. Pr int.---. The Earliest Precursors of Writing. Scientific American 238.6 (1978): 50–59. Print.---. Tokens as Precursors of Writing. Writing: A Mosaic of New Perspectives. Eds. Grigorenko, Elena L., Elisa Mambrino and David D. Preiss. New York: Psychology Press, Taylor Francis, 2012. 3–10. Print.Woods, Christopher. The Earliest Mesopotamian Writing. Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond. Eds. Woods, Christopher, Geoff Emberling and Emily Teeter. Oriental Institute Museum Publications. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2010. 28–98. Print.Woods, Christopher.  Geoff Emberling, and Emily Teeter. Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond. Oriental Institute Museum Publications. Eds. Schramer, Leslie and Thomas G. Urban. Vol. 32. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2010. Print.

The Spoken Language Between Two Culturally Dissimilar...

Hola. Bonjour. Ciao. Namaste. Hallo. Hello. The spoken language between two culturally dissimilar individuals has the capability to serve as a barricade for communication. If the primitive practice of connection between two people is incomprehensible and ineffective, how can a man from the United States and a woman from Germany understand one another? How can freshman Charlie relate to seniors Sam and Patrick? How can a cheeky, uppity lady from Amish-country sit in a car with an Italian from Dirty Jersey, like me, for three and a half hours? How can a character in a frequently challenged, young adult novel be so comparable to me? Individuals seek cultural identity through music in the era of independence and self-defining nature in a button-down, conformist society. Cultural identity is the â€Å"part of a person’s self-conception and self-perception and is related to social class, generations, or any kind of social group† (reference.com). Our musical tastes and preferences can form important statements regarding our own values and attitudes. How we are perceived in society are reflected in the clothes we wear, the slang we speak, and the music blasting in our ears. It is our badge of honor and commitment to the subcultures created under the artists we identify with. By close association with a certain band or song, Charlie and I embroider our distinctiveness on our badges. Although they differ by the artists or songs’ influences, the language of music isShow MoreRelatedChinese Food As A Multicultural Country852 Words   |  4 Pagestraditional since they mainly chose their ethnic food from which they can be easily distinguish. The difference of food culture between Chinese and western country is so complicate, and it can be reflected in many perspectives, especially it reflects the difference of living and thinking habit between ethnic groups. 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U.S. Economy in the 19th Century Free Essays

Peter Hart History 1:00-1:50 U. S. Economy in the 19th Century The Industrial Revolution first took place in Britain where it spread like wild fire. We will write a custom essay sample on U.S. Economy in the 19th Century or any similar topic only for you Order Now Eventually it made its way to America in the late 1800’s to the 19th century where it would eventually change America in every aspect. The American Revolution began because of a single British man named Samuel Slater who brought over manufacturing technologies. The creation of the cotton gin by Slater would soon be the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution brought many new ideas and inventions that made the economy boom. The North would be the first to start the Industrial Revolution while the South stayed true to their old ways; agriculture. The effects of the Industrial Revolution put a strain on both the South and the North. On top of all of this, many changes were being made in this time period such as transportation, manufacturing, and communications. All of these changes transformed the daily lives of Americans as much as it did as any other historical event that has happened in history. Because of this major event, many effects were being taken place; Unions, working conditions and labor itself were accounted for the changes in the 19th century. The North started out as a commercial industry where trading and selling was a big part of American life. Before the Industrial Revolution hit America, people made all of their goods/products in their homes. Factories weren’t that prominent in the North until the Industrial Revolution came by. Technological advancements were nowhere to be found because they were used to making everything at home by hand. The South was farther behind in innovations than the North itself. They were strictly agricultural and farming. In due time though, a man named Samuel Slater brought over new manufacturing technologies from Britain to the United States where it would start the Industrial Revolution. From there, many more inventions were created such as the steamboat by Robert Fulton which marked the beginning in technological innovations. This invention would make transportation of goods and services quicker and more effectively. Another invention during this time period was the telegraph. The telegraph was reated by Samuel Morse. This invention was created in 1837 which allowed America to send messages to international countries all around the world. The new inventions being created in America would lead America in a direction of prosperity and a dominant force in production and at the same time agricultural ways. America would eventually emerge as the center of industry and agricultural in the late 19th century. As an effect of the Industrial revolution, population tripled, farming doubled in the amount of work due to technological inventions such as the steel plow by John Deere. This invention allowed farmers to plow fields faster and plow more fields without having to change the iron plow every time they uproot the ground. Due to this invention, more workers were needed to harvest the crops when the time came. Fortunately, a certain invention was made that helped the harvesting process go quicker and more efficiently. This invention was known as the reaper which was made in 1831 by Cyrus McCormick. Certain inventions helped working production go a lot faster than it was before the Industrial Revolution started. The U. S. Patent Office had a record of 276 inventions during the 1790’s, during the 1890’s a record of 235,000 inventions were registered. At first, the South was resistant against this new generation of inventions and industrialized cities. Ultimately, the South would fall under the new ways of the North. From 1880 to 1900, the amount of cotton mills increased dramatically; 161 to 400 in less than decade. As the need for workers rose, so did the amount of cotton. The amount of cotton increased by eightfold while the amount of workers increased by fivefold. All of these increases resulted in the creations of new inventions. As production increased, so did the need for labor. But as labor increased, so did changes in working conditions, labor itself, and Unions were created on behalf of all of the workers. Even though all of these inventions prospered America, working conditions in the factories that were producing goods such as steel, cotton fabric, and other goods were bad and harmful for the workers. The life of a 19th-century American industrial worker was far from easy. Even in decent times, wages were low, hours were long, and working conditions hazardous. Little of the wealth which the growth of the nation had produced went to its workers. The situation was worse for women and children, who made up a high percentage of the work force in some industries and often received but a fraction of the wages a man could earn. Periodic economic crises swept the nation, further eroding industrial wages and producing high levels of unemployment. At the same time, the technological improvements, which added so much to the nation’s productivity, continually reduced the demand for skilled labor. Yet the unskilled labor pool was constantly growing, as record numbers of immigrants, 18 million between 1880 and 1910, entered the country, looking for work. Before 1874, when Massachusetts passed the nation’s first legislation limiting the number of hours women and children factory workers could perform to 10 hours a day, there was literally no labor legislation that existed in the country. It was not until the 1930s that the federal government would become actively involved. Until then, it was left to the state and local authorities, few of whom were as responsive to the workers as they were to wealthy industrialists. The laissez-faire capitalism, which dominated the second half of the 19th century and fostered huge concentrations of wealth and power, was backed by a judiciary which time and again ruled against those who challenged the system. For millions, living and working conditions were poor, and the hope of escaping from a lifetime of poverty was slight to none. As late as 1900, the United States had the highest job-related death rate of any industrialized nation in the world. Most industrial workers still worked a 10-hour day (12 hours in the steel industry), yet earned from 20 to 40 percent less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life. The situation was only worse for children, whose numbers in the work force doubled between 1870 and 1900. On top of working in harsh conditions, workers had to face low wages and long hours that consisted of a 60 hour week load. These conditions were outrageous and then eventually led to the forming of unions. The first major effort to organize workers’ groups on a nationwide basis appeared with The Noble Order of the Knights of Labor in 1869. Originally a secret, ritualistic society organized by Philadelphia garment workers, it was open to all workers, including blacks, women and farmers. The Knights grew slowly until they succeeded in facing down the great railroad baron, Jay Gould, in an 1885 strike. Within a year they added 500,000 workers to their rolls. The Knights of Labor soon fell into decline, and their place in the labor movement was steadily taken by the American Federation of Labor (AFL). Rather than open its membership to all, the AFL, under former cigar union official Samuel Gompers, focused on skilled workers. His objectives were straight-forward and simple: increase wages, reduce hours and improve working conditions. Per se, Gompers helped turn the labor movement away from the socialist views earlier labor leaders had supported. Due to the capital not granting their goals, riots started to break out. A certain riot known as the Great Rail Strike of 1877 was taken place because of 10 percent cut in wages. This started a line of riots that spurted throughout the country. Finally, after many riots and negotiating with the bosses at the factories, conditions in factories were better and hours were decreased and wages were increased. Child labor laws were forced upon everyone, while women were given the chance to have equal opportunities and equal wages as men. All of these effects of the Industrial Revolution played a vital role in forming what is now known as America today. The Industrial Revolution led America in a way that forever changed it. It was one of the most historic events to ever happen in American history. Due to new inventions and ideas, America was led into an Industrial Revolution. With the Industrial Revolution came more jobs and Unions to protect the people in the factories from harsh working conditions, long hours, and small wages. . How to cite U.S. Economy in the 19th Century, Essay examples

Motivation and Division One Basketball Essay Example For Students

Motivation and Division One Basketball Essay I have made many changes in my life through the years. One of these changes came when I was a freshman in high school. I grew up playing basketball since I was in the first grade, but I had never really taking the game seriously. I decided that I wanted to be the best basketball player that I possible could become. When I was in the ninth grade, I had friends who were getting division one scholarships to play basketball. I thought that being able to go to college for free and play basketball for the school sounded amazing. I asked my dad if he would help me become the best basketball player that I could possible become to try and earn a scholarship. He was an Olympic Ski Jumper so he knew what it would take and he said that he would gladly help me. I began doing basketball workouts everyday and lifting weights a couple times a week. I started having trouble finding time to balance all my schoolwork and basketball workouts. I then started waking up at 5 a. m. everyday to go to the YMCA to get my workouts in. This helped me learn how to discipline myself and work hard. Through all this hard worked I earned many things. I ended up my high school career as Minnesota’s all time leading scorer. I was able to travel the country playing in different tournaments. I was able to earn multiple division one scholarships through this change that I made. There are many things that motivated me to make this change in my life. One of the main reasons I made this change was because I wanted to be able to go to college for free. I knew many people that come out of college thousands of dollars in debt and I did not want to come out of college like that. Another reason was that I wanted to play college basketball. Sports have become such a huge part of our society today, and I wanted to experience this at the highest level that I possible could. One final reason was I wanted to make my family proud. I knew my family would always be proud of me, but I still wanted to show them what I could do if I put my mind to it. I stay motivated to be the best basketball player that I can for many reasons. First, I believe that I was blessed with these abilities, and I want to use all the abilities that I was blessed with to bring honor and glory to God. I have an obligation to my teammates and coaches to keep working and improving to help the team. Being part of a division one team, there are many people that look up to you. There are many kids who see us and want to be just like us. I want to be a good example for them. I am still motivated by all these reasons today. I am still in college so I need to keep improving as a basketball player to keep my scholarship. If I do not perform well enough I could have my scholarship taken away from me. My family tries to come to as many games as they can of mine, and I always love when they do. I can see how proud my parents are when they see me on the court and I love to see them like this. I want to continue to make them proud and show them though this how much I love them. Also, all the little kids who come to our games and ask for autographs and pictures still look up to all of us on the team. I want to be an example for them both on and off the court. And finally, I want to show my Lord and Savior how much I love Him by using the abilities that He has blessed me with to the best of my abilities. .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf , .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf .postImageUrl , .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf , .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf:hover , .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf:visited , .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf:active { border:0!important; } .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf:active , .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf7c9a9cc6ccbe00bc33a223eb48c6ecf:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Usmoke EssayIt would be disrespectful to Him if I wasted the abilities He has given me, and that is the last person I would want to disrespect. I made a change in my life when I was a freshman in high school. This change was to become the best basketball player that I could be. I stay motivated to keep this change up by trying to be the best person that I can be both on and off the court. I have been blessed to have the opportunity to play division one basketball and I want to make the most of this opportunity.